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Political freedom (also know as a political autonomy or political agency) is a central concept in history and political thought and one of the most important features of democratic societies.〔Hannah Arendt, "What is Freedom?", ''Between Past and Future: Eight Exercises in Political Thought'', (New York: Penguin, 1993).〕 It was described as free of oppression〔Iris Marion Young, "Five Faces of Oppression", ''Justice and the Politics of Difference" (Princeton University press, 1990), 39-65.〕 or coercion;〔Michael Sandel, ''Justice: What's the Right Thing to Do?'' (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010).〕 the absence of disabling conditions for an individual and the fulfillment of enabling conditions;〔Amartya Sen, ''Development as Freedom'' (Anchor Books, 2000).〕 or the absence of life conditions of compulsion, e.g. economic compulsion, in a society.〔Karl Marx, "Alienated Labour" in ''Early Writings''.〕 Although political freedom is often interpreted negatively as the freedom from unreasonable external constraints on action,〔Isaiah Berlin, ''Liberty'' (Oxford 2004).〕 it can also refer to the positive exercise of rights, capacities and possibilities for action, and the exercise of social or group rights.〔Charles Taylor, "What's Wrong With Negative Liberty?", ''Philosophy and the Human Sciences: Philosophical Papers'' (Cambridge, 1985), 211-29.〕 The concept can also include freedom from "internal" constraints on political action or speech (e.g. social conformity, consistency, or "inauthentic" behaviour.)〔Ralph Waldo Emerson, "(Self-Reliance )"; Nikolas Kompridis, "Struggling Over the Meaning of Recognition: A Matter of Identity, Justice or Freedom?" in ''European Journal of Political Theory'' July 2007 vol. 6 no. 3 277-289.〕 The concept of political freedom is closely connected with the concepts of civil liberties and human rights, which in democratic societies are usually afforded legal protection from the state. == Views == Various groups along the political spectrum naturally differ on what they believe constitutes "true" political freedom. Left wing political philosophy generally couples the notion of freedom with that of positive liberty, or the enabling of a group or individual to determine their own life or realize their own potential. Freedom, in this sense, may include freedom from poverty, starvation, treatable disease, and oppression, as well as freedom from force and coercion, from whomever they may issue. Friedrich Hayek, a well-known classical liberal, criticized this as a misconception of freedom: ()he use of "liberty" to describe the physical "ability to do what I want", the power to satisfy our wishes, or the extent of the choice of alternatives open to us ... has been deliberately fostered as part of the socialist argument ... the notion of collective power over circumstances has been substituted for that of individual liberty.〔Friedrich August von Hayek, ‘Freedom and Coercion’ in David Miller (ed), Liberty (1991) pp. 80, 85-86〕 Anarcho-socialists see negative and positive liberty as complementary concepts of freedom. Such a view of rights may require utilitarian trade-offs, such as sacrificing the right to the product of one's labor or freedom of association for less racial discrimination or more subsidies for housing. Social anarchists describe the negative liberty-centric view endorsed by capitalism as "selfish freedom".〔(Anarchism FAQ )〕 Anarcho-capitalists see negative rights as a consistent system. Ayn Rand described it as "a moral principle defining and sanctioning a man’s freedom of action in a social context. To such libertarians, positive liberty is contradictory, since so-called “rights” must be traded off against each other, debasing legitimate rights which, by definition, trump other moral considerations. Any alleged "right" which calls for an end result (e.g. housing, education, medical services) produced by people is, in effect, a purported "right" to enslave others. Some notable philosophers, such as Alasdair MacIntyre, have theorized freedom in terms of our social interdependence with other people.〔Alasdair MacIntyre, "The Virtues of Acknowledged Dependence", ''Rational Dependent Animals: Why Humans Need the Virtues'' (Open Court, 2001).〕 According to political philosopher Nikolas Kompridis, the pursuit of freedom in the modern era can be broadly divided into two motivating ideals: freedom as autonomy or independence; and freedom as the ability to cooperatively initiate a new beginning.〔Nikolas Kompridis, "The Idea of a New Beginning: A Romantic Source of Normativity and Freedom" in ''Philosophical Romanticism'' (New York: Routledge, 2007), 32-59.〕 Political freedom has also been theorized in its opposition to (and a condition of) "power relations", or the power of "action upon actions," by Michel Foucault.〔Michel Foucault, "The Subject and Power" in Paul Rabinow and Nikolas S. Rose, eds., ''The Essential Foucault''.〕 It has also been closely identified with certain kinds of artistic and cultural practice by Cornelius Castoriadis, Antonio Gramsci, Herbert Marcuse, Jacques Ranciere, and Theodor Adorno. Environmentalists often argue that political freedoms should include some constraint on use of ecosystems. They maintain there is no such thing, for instance, as "freedom to pollute" or "freedom to deforest" given that such activities create negative externalities. The popularity of SUVs, golf, and urban sprawl has been used as evidence that some ideas of freedom and ecological conservation can clash. This leads at times to serious confrontations and clashes of values reflected in advertising campaigns, e.g. that of PETA regarding fur. John Dalberg-Acton stated that "The most certain test by which we judge whether a country is really free is the amount of security enjoyed by minorities." 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Political freedom」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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